Tokyo City: Architecture and Agriculture

Tokyo City: Architecture and Agriculture Kostof Essay Tokyo city The archaic capitals of Japan, such as Fujiwara-Kyà ´ (694-710 AD), Nara (710-784 AD), and Kyoto (AD 794-1868) conformed to Tangs capital grid-planning. However, grounds of defence, the devisers of Tokyo shunned the grid, preferring instead an irregular network of streets encompassing the Edo Castle grounds. Afterwards, several parts of Tokyo were grid-planned. The history of Tokyo played a significant role in the present architecture of Tokyo city. Tokyo faced two major destructions in its history; first by Great Kanto earthquake and firebomb during the pacific war. After the pacific war Japanese government was bankrupt could not execute citywide redevelopment to support the economy. Instead it embarked on infrastructural development leaving residential and commercial urban development in the hands o local actors. As a result unplanned cities sprang up despite deliberate efforts by the government to plan the city. The city planning and zoning act of 1968 aimed to create a separation between urban and agricultural lands. Despite the government of Japan adopting the city planning and zoning act of 1968 with an intention of separation between urban and agricultural lands, this has not been fully realised.. Since the Meiji restoration Japanese cities have eagerly been trying to apply western planning concepts which set a clear demarcation between urban and rural land use. Despite efforts to pursue this goal, urban periphery landscapes with an apposition of segmented agricultural lands and urban land uses has lived through the history of Japanese cities including Tokyo. Agro-activities take place in Tokyo in more than 900ha of land. Setagaya is one of the most agriculturally active Tokyo wards. Some agro-activities take place at the heart of Tokyo city. Presence of agricultural land in Tokyo city interferes with grid-planning of the city. Some parts of the city are grid-planned while others are not. Le Corbusier likens grid planning to the way a human being walks. Human beings walk on a straight line since they have a goal and know where he is ending to. Man also turns at right angles when he needs to.  [1]  Therefore the oftenness of cross streets is his own decision with topography having little to do with it especially if it is a flat site. It is stepping the land with streets at right angles with each other is the opening move in settlement planning. The grid is the most common pattern of urban planning in history although its use was not uninterrupted through history. The grid is recommended as the standard scheme urban solution for different sites. It is also a means for equitable distribution of land as well as easy allocation of land for trading of real estate. Straight through-streets provide defence. The concentration of buildings into blocks as in grid-planning provides defence too. One common feature with all grids is their orthogonal street pattern. This does not make grids immutable but on the contrary they can curve around irregularities on the ground without betraying its basic logic. In orthogonal street pattern, long streets are straight with short streets joining the long streets at right angle. Structures in Tokyo are organized along wide road and rail network. This is also repeated in the residential areas though in a smaller scale. In the residential areas houses are organized along long lanes (roji) where small shops and restaurants can be found. These lanes are hardly accessible to vehicles. Existence of coordinated array of town does not ensure and orderly extension of the town grids into the surrounding territories. Town grids can only be extended to the surrounding territory only if the city authorities had the power to oversee development in the suburban regions. As mentioned earlier, after the devastating calamities of Great Kant earthquake and the bombing in the Second World War left Japan government bankrupt. As a result, the government was concerned with infrastructural development leaving the urban development in the hands of local actors. Tokyos shimokitazawa neighbourhood is an example of citys incremental urban development. It emerged from a combination of local liberty and an infrastructural retrofitting by the Japanese government. It grew from a village with rice fields in the periphery of Edo to become and a modern urban cultural and commercial hub. Today shimokitazawa has a village and ancient Tokyo atmosphere. The typology of Shimokitazawa is characteriz ed by little low-rise constructions along a complex network mainly of pedestrian streets, busy ground market activity, and tight community networks. Shimokitazawa is one of the areas of Tokyo city that presents deformed grid. Organic city Some parts of Tokyo city can be referred to as organic city. Organic cities grow spontaneously adhering to no master plan, do not enjoy benefit of designers. Alternatively organic citys growth is dependent on passage of time, the lay of land and the day to day lives of the citizens. The result of these forces is irregular non-geometric with incidences of crooked and curved streets and randomly defined open spaces.  [2]  Organic city emerges when development is left in the hands of individuals without a governing body subdividing the land before disposing it off to the people. Spiro agrees with the fact that people have different opinions about organic cities. Some people might chose to find fault with organic city or celebrate its action-packed topography, forthcoming and flexible development of its form, and its culture characterized by communal living. He does not seem to oppose organic cities. He asserts that even planned cities present features characteristic of organic cities. The extent of life in terms of the buildings mass and varying height of buildings marshalled like troops along a city grid can result to picturesque characteristic of unplanned city. Spiro also argues that even the geometrical irregularity of unplanned city is a matter of grade. The streets curve frequently but not canonical. What looks like in orderly arrangement is often a matter of straight streets sections intersecting at random angles, and their linear elements broken with frequent angulated bends.  [3]   According to Spiro planned and organic cities exist side by side e.g. Tokyo and Shimokitazawa most historic towns, mainly those of metropolitan size are puzzles of premeditated and self-generated segments, diversely juxtaposed or interlocked.  [4]  Organic cities may start as shantytowns on unoccupied land at the remote edges of town, or in centrally located areas that are difficult to build up such as steep slopes, canyons, or garbage dumps. Shimokitazawa has many narrow passages that are inaccessible to vehicles which give a true sense of adventure as one explores the town on foot. Second hand clothes shops selling miscellaneous items from the 70s and old animated themed toys are popular. Various cultural festivals are held in Shimokitazawa which showcase the cultural wealth of the town. In the month of February, the town of Shimokitazawa if full of festivity. Various plays are performed in eight small theatres during the month long Shimokitazawa theatre festival. The Tengu-Matsuri festival held at the end of January or early February gives a serene and friendly appeal of Shimokitazawa. The lively Mikoshi-Matsuri festival otherwise called the portable shrine festival is held early September. Organic cities lay both conceptually physically and in the middle of slums and contemporary planned cities. They are a budding environment that increased gradually and spontaneously evolved over generations. Often organic cities are culturally vibrant and creative dependent on local skills and cultural capital. They can provide solutions to challenges facing modern cities such as population density. Organic city are able to support high population density in an environmentally and socially sustainable way. With increase in number of poor people living in degraded urban environments organic cities have potential to shift the paradigm of urbanism. Therefore organic cities should be recognized as a legitimate urban form and developing it from within. The grand manner The tree planted streets of Tokyo city as well as its parks contribute to the citys plan grand manner. Side walks and parkways in the streets of Tokyo city are amazing. The tree- planted sidewalks and parkways give the city a sense of serenity. Some avenues have double rows of trees depending on the width of the sidewalks. For example, on Grand Avenue in South Park where an average 24 inch sidewalk are required, a double row of trees are planted. Road tree in Japan is thought to date back as the middle of the eighth century when trees were planted along the roads for the welfare of travellers. However, only after Japan opened its frontiers that it started to overhaul and thus turning trees to be part of urban landscapes. Black pine, cherry, maple and other species were planted in Tokyo on Ginza Street in 1873. Exotic trees were first used to line the city streets in 1875 when a black locust tree was planted in Tokyo. However because of poor care most of them dried up. In 1907 the government of Japan embarked on a big project of planting trees along city streets of Tokyo. Ten fast growing trees were selected which included among others Trident maple, Plane tree and Ginkgos. Ginkgos was planted in front of Tokyos city hall thus was marked as a street tree in Japan. However this project suffered two major setbacks; the Great Kanto Earthquake that resulted into fires that destroyed more than half the street trees, and bombing of Japan during the Second World War. Tree planting in city streets was part of Tokyos reconstruction process. Even to date Ginkgos remains the preferred street tree in Tokyo. Large number of evergreen trees are planted in wide and high-speed expressways to reduce traffic noise in the surrounding residential areas. Trees creating harmony are preferred for expressways passing through undeveloped areas like mountain foothills. Ginkgo tree has been utilized mainly in designs that c omprise western landscape characteristics. Tokyo National Showa Memorial Park was created in 1983, and sits on a 450-acre parcel of land and Ginkgos forms its allee. The park was created to mark the fifteenth anniversary ascension of Emperor Showa. The place having been occupied by United States Tachikawa military base, the buildings were demolished and hills rebuilt, tree planted and grasses sown to make forests and fields. The relationship of city to its natural environment Urbanization process has led to reduction in green spaces and loss of public spaces. He present urban regeneration projects in Tokyo are aimed at converting ex-industry land and shifting land to high rise building areas. These areas relate weakly with the encompassing city areas. Currently nature scarcely exists in Tokyo. During the Edo Period, samurai residential areas were situated on the high land of the Musashi plateau, while abodes of low caste samurai and tradesmen were situated in the valleys below, making a life space for a variety of living and working areas according to the contour of the land. The Tokyo Bay was visible at a distant from the roads going down from the high land. There were also many places where people could relish the sight of Mount Fuji. Protecting view points of various centres of attraction such as Mt. Fuji is not an important factor in Tokyo city planning. On the contrary emphasis has inclined towards universality rather than the features of the place, and the result is stereotype city space. Like many historical cities, Tokyo is developed close to the rivers and canals. Presently, the rivers are separated from the town by perpendicular embankments, with the buildings having their backs to the polluted rivers. Originally the ideal sites for city architecture were river banks with straight access to the water transportation system. Relationship of the man-made to the natural context The relationship between manmade and the natural in Tokyo can be described as chaotic. The city plan does not give emphasis to visibility of natural features such as Mt. Fuji. Unlike London, where protecting the perspective of Saint Pauls Cathedral from several main points across the city is a key guideline for the city planning, Tokyo does not give much consideration to the view of its esteemed feature in the city. Save for a few parks at the centre of Tokyo, parks and open spaces have reduced compared to those of ancient Edo (Tokyo). Even some of the parks cannot provide the relaxation they were intended because of noise pollution. For example, Uchibori-dori Avenue cuts across the Outer Garden of the Imperial Palace which is next to Hibiya Park. The car noise creates a restless atmosphere within the park. Putting Uchibori-dori Avenue underground, and planting of Japanese black pines would create a large open space area about thirty hectares conducive for events, outdoor stage or sporting events. This would in turn revive the business area in the core of the city which has since lost popularity on holidays. Urban fabric and monuments Tokyo city is a unique in that western or modern and ancient city planning is intertwined in the development of the city. Agricultural land is seen in the city as it is historic of Asian cities. Some people view this kind of coexistence as chaotic mainly because Japan government adopted the western style of city planning that makes a clear demarcation between urban and rural areas which Japan has not been able accomplished. However when looked from historic and cultural perspective, it can be understood as serving an important role in the Japanese cities and specifically in Tokyo. The agricultural land sustains their surrounding population. The urban fabric of Tokyo is often made of a soft residential core, qualified by low-rise and thickly built houses, encircled by a hard shell of taller and larger buildings along broad roads or railways. A new generation of needs has led to changes in building types. For example, apartments are seen to be small and their narrow staircase not providing adequate access. This has made people to migrate form apartments for better housing. The originally neat, modern parks and greenways of the apartments have now become jungles of vegetation. Now efforts are directed towards redeveloping the apartments to attract new residents. Tokyo city has several ancient and modern monuments. In some cases modern and ancient monuments are juxtaposed depicting western and ancient architecture evident in Tokyo city. They also depict the co-existence of western and ancient cultures. An example is Zojoji Temple located next to the Tokyo Tower. In summary Tokyo city can be described as combining grid and organic city in its urban fabric. The city planning and zoning act of 1968 intended to create a separation between urban and agricultural lands. However this attempt has failed to produce the desired results as agricultural lands are still evident in Tokyo city. This makes Asian cities which have borrowed the European way of urban planning, including Tokyo look disorderly. As a result of combining western and ancient styles of city planning, some parts of Tokyo city are grid planned whereas others not. Although the city may look chaotic it has still been able to maintain a grand manner in its streets and open space. Tree planting along the sidewalks and parkways as well as parks such as Ueno contribute to the citys grand manner. Also contributing to the uniqueness of Tokyo city is its monuments some of which are juxtaposed both modern and ancient e.g. Zojoji Temple and Tokyo Tower.

Anicent History Pompeii- Trade & Commerce

Trade and Commerce in Pompeii Before the tragic eruption on Pompeii it was a well established thriving market town situated right on the coast of Italy that was very advanced for its age. Evidence throughout the town suggests that Pompeii had a healthy commercial life but there has been little evidence of manufacturing and trade although still enough to show the importations and exportations of the town providing archaeologist with a sufficient amount to have a great knowledge and understanding of what life was like in Pompeii in terms of their trade and commerce.Pompeii was known as the trade centre of southern Campania for around 600 years and traded with various areas around northern Italy which involved the importation and exportation of goods. The geological positioning made it ideal for trade having a great access to the Mediterranean shipping as well as the Sarno River allowing access to other smaller towns. The harbour was constantly active with ships merchants and sailors ke eping the industry flowing.The trade industry was severed as a leveller in society which had even concerned the elite. Investigations have shown the most prominent exportations of Pompeii were pottery, garum (fish-source), wine and olive oil. Workshop production was on a small scale so very few goods were produced to be exported. Despite their local producers there is evidence of a limited range of imported goods such as pottery from Gual, lamps from northern parts of Italy, wine from Spain, Sicily and Crete, and would even get oil from southern Spain.Most producers would trade their merchandise with negotiators in exchanges for goods from other regions. The majority Pompeian imports and export goods of Pompeian origin have been found throughout the Roman Empire but mostly within the city itself which reinforces the fact that the trade industry was not comprehensive yet has been able to supply evidence that there was an active trade industry.Where as the trade industry can be contra sted with the commercial life of Pompeii, as it was bustling with the towns desire of profit it was accumulating great wealth which has a substantial amount of evidence providing support such as 600 excavated privately owned shops, bars, workshops and inns, the city controlled markets around the forum, epigraphic evidence of the number of guilds of tradesmen and retailers, and inscriptions on walls and floors paying tribute to the pursuit of profit and so much more. The commerce in Pompeii was conducted in public buildings in nd around the forum for marketing and private shops that extended along the main street the goods sold in these shops were sometimes brought from local merchants but mainly made on the premises or in adjoining workshops. The common commercial shops are the fullers and dryers, vinryards and wine production, graum the fish sauce production and bakeries as you can see they are dominate by food. The main food market was in the north-east corner of the forum the â⠂¬Ëœmacellum’ around perimeter was where the small shops and stalls.Fresh produce from local farms were sold throughout here of raw and prepared foods such as graum, olive-oil, wine, fruit and vegetables. Food shops being the msot common along the streets of Pompeii with the majority selling hot foods and drinks which are known as ‘thermopolia’ that has already been 130 excavated providing evidence of a large food industry. Taverns were also had a big contribution but has only had 20 excavated, these were known as ‘cauponau’. These food shops and the trade industry involving lots of local produce has clearly helped keep the commercial life flourishing in Pompeii.Outside the temple of Apollo near the ‘macellum’ a limestone table containing an official set of weights and measurements where market goods can be tested, there are early inscriptions that show Oscan weights and measurement were first used then the table was mortified for the Ro man standards this was set up near to markets in the forum and is known as ‘mensa ponderaria’. This is evidence that there was a well run economy, and everyone had the same amount for what they pay for keeping it equal while allowing the commercial life to run smoother in terms of the food industry.Lastly two collections of carbonised waxed wooden tablets had been excavated recording a wide collection of various business transactions. 154 of these tablets were found in the house of the banker Lucius Caecilius Jucundus, these were records of receipts of rents and loans. The other collection of around 120 waxed tablets were found belonging to the Sulpicii which was a firm of freedmen working as financiers more than 80 of the tablets reveal different kinds of business documents composed of contracts of sales, loans, leases, accounts and many more and the other 40 of them report of judicial matters, oaths and court proceedings.Which is again more evidence support that was a thriving commercial life in Pompeii. In conclusion there has been a substantial amount of excavated archaeological evidence as well as found artefacts tracing back to Pompeii to provide people of the modern age with enough information to gain a greater knowledge and understanding of how life was really like in the town of Pompeii of an active but not extensive trade industry and a healthy commercial life, the town was flourishing before it was buried but the eruption and lost hundreds of years.

The Dos and Donts of Samples of an Essay Paper Writing about an Argumentative

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Human Trafficking Is Not A New Concept - 1649 Words

Most people dream of a better life somewhere other than where they grow up. Some want it so bad they run away from the safety of home to the bright lights of the city. Young teenage girls become vulnerable and scared. When what seems like an angel comes to save you off the streets. The devil seems to fit this character better, taking in young girls giving them a so called home, and promising his protection. He swears that no one can hurt her as long as she does everything he says. By the time this girls figure out that they have made a terrible decision it’s completely passed the point of no return. Human trafficking is the illegal movement of a person or people to be placed in prostitution or forced to work. Human trafficking is not a new concept it has been going on for centuries. We use to refer to the act of human trafficking as slavery. Though I that Abraham Lincoln did away with that issue back in his presidency, or that it only happens in small third world countries, yo u would be wrong. Human trafficking is alive and well. With the number of cases being reported, not only in the United States, but throughout the world continue to raise. Remember that not every case is reported, for every case that is reported there is probably five that are not. Most victims are reported to be as young as five years old, how do you justify molesting a child. The victims of human trafficking are raped of more than just their virginity, but of their basic human rights. In our countryShow MoreRelatedHuman Trafficking1355 Words   |  6 PagesRigdon November 16, 2014 Human Trafficking and its Dire Effects. Human Trafficking in the United States is something not a lot of people discuss. Most think it is only something that happens in third world countries, but in fact could be happening in their hometown. 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